Overview of carbon's importance on Earth

As the free element it forms allotropes from differing kinds of carbon-carbon bonds, such as in graphite and diamond. Coal is the main source of carbon in mineral form, containing up to 95% of carbon in anthracite. Recently discovered nanostructured forms called fullerenes include buckyballs such as C60, nanotubes, and nanofibers. Because of their high strength-to-weight ratio, it is hoped that many of these carbon compounds will soon be practical for use in advanced structural composite materials.

Not only can carbon also bond with itself, but it can also form chains with a wide variety of other elements, forming nearly ten million known compounds.

Carbon-containing polymers, often with oxygen and nitrogen ions included at regular intervals in the main polymer chain, form the basis of nearly all industrial commercial plastics.

Carbon occurs in all organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. When united with oxygen, carbon forms carbon dioxide, which is the main carbon source for plant growth. When united with hydrogen, it forms various flammable compounds called hydrocarbons which are essential to industry in the form of fossil fuels, and also other important living plant components like carotenoids and terpenes. When combined with oxygen and hydrogen, carbon can form many groups of important biological compounds including sugars, celluloses, lignans, chitins, alcohols, fats, and aromatic esters. With oxygen it forms alkaloids, and with the addition of sulfur also it forms antibiotics, amino acids and proteins. With the addition of phosphorus to these other elements, it forms DNA and RNA, the chemical codes of life.

Notable characteristics of carbon

Carbon exhibits remarkable properties, some paradoxical. Different forms include the hardest naturally occurring substance (diamond) and one of the softest substances (graphite) known. Moreover, it has a great affinity for bonding with other small atoms, including other carbon atoms, and is capable of forming multiple stable covalent bonds with such atoms. Because of these properties, carbon is known to form nearly ten million different compounds, the large majority of all chemical compounds. Carbon compounds form the basis of all life on Earth and the carbon-nitrogen cycle provides some of the energy produced by the Sun and other stars. Moreover, carbon has the highest melting/sublimation point of all elements. At atmospheric pressure it has no actual melting point as its triple point is at 10 MPa (100 bar) so it sublimates above 4000 K. Thus it remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest melting point metals like tungsten or rhenium irrespective of its allotropic form. Although thermodynamically prone to oxidation, it resists oxidation more effectively than some elements (like iron and even copper) that are weaker reducing agents at room temperature.

Although it forms an incredible variety of compounds, most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions. At standard temperature and pressure, it resists all but the strongest oxidizers (such as fluorine and nitric acid). It does not react with sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, chlorine or any alkalis. At elevated temperatures it of course reacts with oxygen in flames and with sulfur vapors; it also combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides and reduces such metal oxides as iron oxide.

In physics, a laser is a device that emits light through a specific mechanism for which the term laser is an acronym: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. This is a combined quantum-mechanical and thermodynamical process discussed in more detail below. As a light source, a laser can have various properties, depending on the purpose for which it is designed. A typical laser emits light in a narrow, low-divergence beam and with a well-defined wavelength (corresponding to a particular color if the laser is operating in the visible spectrum). This is in contrast to a light source such as the incandescent light bulb, which emits into a large solid angle and over a wide spectrum of wavelength. These properties can be summarized in the term coherence.

A laser consists of a gain medium inside an optical cavity, with a means to supply energy to the gain medium. The gain medium is a material (gas, liquid, solid or free electrons) with appropriate optical properties. In its simplest form, a cavity consists of two mirrors arranged such that light bounces back and forth, each time passing through the gain medium. Typically, one of the two mirrors, the output coupler, is partially transparent. The output laser beam is emitted through this mirror.

Light of a specific wavelength that passes through the gain medium is amplified (increases in power); the surrounding mirrors ensure that most of the light makes many passes through the gain medium.

Part of the light that is between the mirrors (i.e., is in the cavity) passes through the partially transparent mirror and appears as a beam of light. The process of supplying the energy required for the amplification is called pumping and the energy is typically supplied as an electrical current or as light at a different wavelength. In the latter case, the light source can be a flash lamp or another laser. Most practical lasers contain additional elements that affect properties such as the wavelength of the emitted light and the shape of the beam.

The first working laser was demonstrated in May 1960 by Theodore Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories. Recently, lasers have become a multi-billion dollar industry. The most widespread use of lasers is in optical storage devices such as compact disc and DVD players, in which the laser (a few millimeters in size) scans the surface of the disc. Other common applications of lasers are bar code readers and laser pointers. In industry, lasers are used for cutting steel and other metals and for inscribing patterns (such as the letters on computer keyboards). Lasers are also commonly used in various fields in science, especially spectroscopy, typically because of their well-defined wavelength or short pulse duration in the case of pulsed lasers. Lasers are also used for military and medical applications

The newest members of the Boeing 737 family - - the 737-600/-700/-800/-900 models -- continue the 737's pre-eminence as the world's most popular and reliable commercial jet transport. The 737 family has won orders for more than 6,000 airplanes, which is more airplanes than The Boeing Company's biggest competitor has won for its entire product line since it began business.

The 737 - a short-to-medium-range airplane - is based on a key Boeing philosophy of delivering added value to airlines with reliability, simplicity and reduced operating and maintenance costs.

The Next-Generation 737 models build on the strengths that made the 737 the world's most successful commercial airliner, while incorporating improvements and value-added technology designed for the 21st century.

Advanced technology winglets allow airlines to save on fuel, extend its range, carry more payload and reduce engine maintenance costs. Blended winglets are wing tip extensions which provide several benefits to airplane operators. The winglet option increases the Next-Generation 737's lead as the newest and most technologically advanced airplane in its class.

The passenger cabin on the Boeing Next-Generation 737s has a new look, providing passengers with comfortable, aesthetically pleasing surroundings.

The Boeing 737-900ER is the newest member of the Next-Generation 737 airplane family. The higher capacity, longer-range derivative of the 737-900 was launched on July 18, 2005 with an order for 30 airplanes from Indonesia 's Lion Air.

Did you know about 50 gallons of paint are used to paint an average 737? Once the paint is dry, it will weigh approximately 250 pounds.

The impervious Rock of Gibraltar is situated at the southern tip of Spain, standing guard over the strait of Gibraltar which divides Europe and Africa. This strategic position has made it the target of endless attacks, yet despite the battles, The Rock has stood firm over the centuries resulting in the well-known English idiom 'as solid as the Rock of Gibraltar'.

Gibraltar has its legendary beginnings in Greek mythology as one of the Pillars of Hercules, pushed away from Mount Acho in Morocco by the fabled strength of Hercules to mark the end of the Mediterranean and the comforting limits of the world as they knew it. The Rock was ceded to England in 1713 at the conclusion of the Wars of the Spanish Succession (along with Minorca and much of what is now Canada) and has remained a British Crown Colony since despite many Spanish attempts to regain it, most famously during the Great Siege (1779-83). Gibraltar has been an irritant in Anglo-Spanish relations ever since.

Situated on a narrow promontory linked to the end of the Iberian Peninsula by a slender sandy neck, the British colony of Gibraltar is dominated by the impressive limestone monolith, and covers an area of roughly two square miles (6 sq km). The town and its harbour take up the thin coastal strip to the west overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar and the Atlantic Ocean, while the steeper eastern side is made up of sheer cliffs dropping to little beaches on the Mediterranean Sea. The limestone cliffs are peppered with natural caves, such as the dramatic St Michael's grotto, as well as a maze of tunnels which were excavated as a defence system in the 18th century and are now open to tourists.

Millions of visitors flow through Miami International airport each year. They come to do business and enjoy the area's countless pleasures that include swimming, fishing, boating, golfing and embark on luxury cruises to the Caribbean from the Port of Miami.

Miami Beach is on the mainland, while the city of Miami Beach is on a thin barrier island about 4 miles across Biscayne Bay. The locals call this area the Billion Dollar Sandbar. Miami is also known as a playground for the rich and famous and is world famous for the many elegant hotels and luxury resorts and spas that line its beaches.

In the summer the average daily temperature is 82 degrees but in July and August the temperatures soar to the 90s. Bring an umbrella, because it rains every day in Miami at 3 p.m.

Over 400 multinational companies have operations in this commercial center which is a gateway to international business. The city is also home to over135 financial institutions and foreign agencies.

Over 2.1 million people reside in Miami. Sixty percent of the population is foreign born and almost 40% are Cuban. Although area-wise it is only 34 square miles, Miami is the eleventh largest metropolitan area in the United States.

Anyone who thinks of events and holidays in Brazil almost simultaneously thinks of Carnival. Whilst Carnival does indeed play a major part in the events and holidays of Brazil, with a population in which approximately one in every two is Roman Catholic, and from a continent famous for fiesta, it should come as no surprise to learn that Brazil has a number of events and holidays in addition to the world famous Carnival.

 Brazil's Events and Holidays include:

New Year's Day (December 31 - January 1)
New Year's Day is known as Ano Nove (Portuguese) locally, but is probably more famously known as Revillon. Whilst the whole country celebrates New Year's Day, as with most major festivals in Brazil, the place to be on New Year's Day is Rio de Janeiro where anywhere up to 2 million people gather to revel in an all night / all day party. If you want to join in the fun and frolics of Rio on New Year's Eve, take yourself off to Copacabana beach where you can join in with some of the best fireworks and live music in South America!

Carnival Rio (late February - early March)
Carnival Rio takes place during the 5 day up to Ash Wednesday, with the last day of Carnival falling on Shrove Tuesday. Although the most famous events during the 5 days of Carnival are the Rio Carnival, events celebrating Carnival take place all over the country. Visitors to Brazil should keep in mind that all 5 days of Rio Carnival are public holidays all over Brazil - therefore most shops will be closed during the period covering Carnival Rio. Traditionally, this is also the culmination of the Brazilian summer holidays and Carnival Rio also marks the end of the long school holidays (which start in December). As a result, travel during Rio Carnival time can be difficult.

Dubai today is flashy, fun and slightly surreal. Renowned for its sand, sun and shopping, it was once a tranquil town of coral-and-gypsum courtyard houses built by Persian traders and palm-frond huts housing Bedouin fisherman and pearl divers. Today shiny new skyscrapers reflect the mosques and wind towers of Old Dubai.

The audacity of the city's rulers is breathtaking. Running out of coastline to build hotels? Build vast artificial islands with 120km (74.5mi) of new beachfront. Need better connections with the world? Build up an award-winning international airline in 15 years.

The best time of the year to visit Dubai is between November and April, when the weather is coolest. The rest of the year you're more likely to be running from one air-conditioned environment to the next instead of getting out and exploring. Ramadan, which takes place at a different time each year on the Western calendar, is the Muslim month of fasting and is strictly adhered to throughout the UAE.

Cancer begins in your cells, which are the building blocks of your body. Normally, your body forms new cells as you need them, replacing old cells that die. Sometimes this process goes wrong. New cells grow even when you don't need them, and old cells don't die when they should. These extra cells can form a mass called a tumor. Tumors can be benign or malignant. Benign tumors aren't cancer while malignant ones are. Cells from malignant tumors can invade nearby tissues. They can also break away and spread to other parts of the body.

Most cancers are named for where they start. For example, lung cancer starts in the lung, and breast cancer starts in the breast. The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another is called metastasis. Symptoms and treatment depend on the cancer type and how advanced it is. Treatment plans may include surgery, radiation and/or chemotherapy.

The Dubai tourism boom is fueling these lofty numbers and are expected to increase their 5 million annual visitors to 15 million by 2012. Most of this boom is being driven by the city run airline Emirates. Emirates has 80 direct flights to destinations around the world and is expecting to add another 20 destinations over the next few years.

The tourism boom spearheaded by Emirates has been strategically driven by acting initially as the stopover point for Europeans and Asian connecting through their respective continents.